房地產泡沫破裂研究論文

時間:2022-08-31 11:20:00

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房地產泡沫破裂研究論文

摘要:房地產泡沫破裂首先對銀行產生巨大的危害,通過對包括香港在內的22個工業化國家和地產的住房市場及股市的熱潮和衰落的研究,我們發現住房價格下跌更可能使銀行受到打擊,原因是在多數國家,銀行主導著購房貸款業務。但是房地產泡沫所帶來的災難遠不止停留在銀行的層面上。

關鍵詞:房地產泡沫;泡沫破裂;經濟危機;政治危機;社會危機

一、房地產泡沫破裂誘發經濟危機

(一)生產萎縮

房地產泡沫的破滅往往伴隨著經濟蕭條,股價下跌,企業財務營運逐漸陷入困境。股價下跌使企業發行的大量可轉換公司認股權在長期內不能轉為股權,從而給企業帶來巨額的償債負擔;此外,地價和股價下跌也使企業承受了巨大的資產評估損失和被迫出售土地和股票的銷售損失。企業收益的減少又使得投資不足,既降低了研究開發投資水平,也減少了企業在設備上的投資。1992年,日本制造業的研究開發費用下降3.5%,以這次危機為轉折點,日本逐漸失去了在汽車和半導體等部門的優勢。生產的不景氣又導致了雇傭環境的惡化和居民實際收入的下降。據泰國官方統計數字,1998年1至7月,泰國破產企業達5,377家,停產企業達6,538家。至1997年底,失業人數達120萬,1998年又增加到200萬。

(二)消費銳減

Caseetal.(2001)等人的研究指出房地產價格的變動對消費的影響遠大于股票,以香港經驗來看,是當樓價大幅下滑造成大量負資產,房地產交易大幅減少,連帶建筑、工程、銀行抵押及律師行的生意大受影響,最終影響會擴展至高檔消費市場及其它行業。此外,地價的下跌使得居民個人所擁有的土地資產貶值。由于經濟不景氣和個人收入水平的下降,居民對未來懷有不同程度的憂心,因此會減少當期的消費,擴大收入中的儲蓄部分。以備不時之需,以美國經驗來看,房地產業的下滑至少使經濟增長率下降2個百分點以上。

(三)經濟增速下降

個人消費的萎縮又使眾多生產消費品的產業部門陷入困境。令大量企業倒閉及裁員。圖1為1982年至2006年香港失業率和就業不足率情況,自1998年開始不斷攀升,直至2004年才開始下降。企業倒閉及裁員意味著大量的失業員工,即使沒有倒閉的企業。由于收益的下降也要不斷裁減人員。

二、房地產泡沫破裂還可能引發政治和社會危機

隨著房地產泡沫破裂和經濟危機的發生,失業人數劇增,社會民怨會增加。以香港為例,1997年房地產泡沫破滅后,以舉報個案計算的犯罪率開始攀升,由1997年的每10萬人有1,038宗,增加至2004年的1,299宗,增幅高達25.14%,直至2005年才開始同落。以圖2為例,由1997年至2005年間犯罪率與香港私人住宅售價指數走勢基本上呈相反方向變動,即當住宅指數下跌時,犯罪率會上升,相反亦言,由于2001年及2002年屬于不規則情況,若從圖中剔除,并以虛線連接2000年及2003年,前跡的反向關系更為清晰。

我們再以散點圖重繪香港私人住宅售價指數(以平均計算)與犯罪率的關系。由點的分布來看,兩者存在反向關系,但并不是直線關系,表明還有其它因素在發生作用。由于人們對日益惡化的經濟危機感到不滿,香港社會危機逐漸加劇。中產階級、負資產業主、工人,甚至商家此起彼伏地采用不同形式向政府表達不滿、終于導致發生了2003年7月1日的50萬人示威游行,幸而在中央的大力支持下,示威并沒有引起暴亂,亦沒有造成社會動蕩不安。但在經濟形勢每況愈下,最終迫使董建華以健康理由在2005年3月10日向中央請辭。

香港房地產泡沫破滅亦同樣令百業蕭條,失業率上升,但香港的經濟基礎較堅穩,社會福利保障亦較其它東南亞國家完善,盡管民怨日深,但始終沒有造成太大的社會動蕩。在圖4為由1997年4月至2005年3月香港私人住宅售價指數與特首董建華的支特度走趨比較,不難發現董建華自出任特首開始,支特度一直下跌,與樓價走勢相似,但波動幅度較細,支特度長期在50以下,而2003年7月期間更一度跌至40以下。

圖5為香港私人住宅售價指數與特首董建華的支特度的相關度分析,我們可以見到在樓價由55至95之區間,正相關度較高,高于或低于此區間,相關度較低,反映民意認為某些環境不是特區政府或董建華所能控制的,例如亞洲金融風暴或非典疫情令房價下跌,說明香港民意是有理智的。

三、總結

總而言之,房地產業的發展,關系到相關產業的發展以及整個國民經濟的增長。房地產行業的投資風險問題,關系到政府對房地產業的調控措施制定、企業投資方向確定以及金融機構決策等。如果對房地產的泡沫程度、房地產業投資風險評估有誤,將可能會對個人、企業和社會造成無法估量的損失。日本、東南亞、香港等國家和地區的房地產泡沫所引發的金融危機幾乎使這些國家和地區的經濟一蹶不振,也造成大批企業倒閉,投資者傾家蕩產。近代的資產泡沫破滅事件不但規模大、次數頻密、影響深遠,而且不再局限于資本市場,有互動、跨國和跨產業的趨勢。近代較嚴重的泡沫事件包括八十年代末發生在日本的房地產泡沫、九十年代末發生的亞洲金融危機導致部分東南亞地區的地產泡沫破滅,及在2000年發生的科網股泡沫破滅。至于香港,早于1881年便首次出現房地產泡沫,但令人們記憶猶新的還是由1997年至2003年間房地產曾瀉近70%的經歷。事實上,房地產泡沫在世界上其它大城市亦隨處可見,上海由1995年至1999年間房地產價格下跌了近38%,莫斯科在1995年至1999年間下跌了近67%,巴黎在1991年至1998年間下跌了近43%。當然,房地產泡沫與大多數投機泡沫一樣,最終逃不了暴跌的下場。每一次房地產泡沫破滅不但令許多私房擁有者帶來痛苦,也對當地的經濟發展,甚至給政府的管治威信帶來沉重的打擊。研究房地產泡沫的成因、形成過程、泡沫破滅的誘因和導火線,舒解和燙平泡沫的方法和對策,特別是在設立預警機制、REITs和衍生工具(例如根據Halifac房價指數而設的hedgelets),不但對社會穩定和經濟發展有一定的實用性,而且對房地產以至金融理論的創新亦有一定的價值。因而,正確分析房地產泡沫的成因,房地產泡沫存在與否及泡沫的規模,從而正確評價房地產行業投資風險,對于政府宏觀調控、房地產商投資決策及金融機構決策等都有很好的參考作用(謝明干、江春澤1999)。readers.TraumatizedbytherapeofSetheandthema-ternalviolation,Hallegraduallyloseshismind.Hisselfhoodshatters.Hesmearedthatbutteronhisface,Sethethinks,becausethemilktheytookfromherisonhismindeventually.Thosecomplexfactorsdrivehiminmentaldisorderasmostmadpeopledo.Even,hedisappearsfromthecommunityforpermanentes-capefromthetrauma,themortalruinratherthanper-manentsafety.

Passivevictims

Asfatherdoes,HowardandBugler,sonsofSetheandHallerunawayafterlivingin124forsev-eralyears.NotbehavinglikeDenver,theirsister,theycan''''tfacethehauntingspiritcombinedwiththeirmother''''sprayerforpenancein124.Theydenynotinslavery.Asresearchofpsychoanalysisreveals,exil-ingisonewaytotraumawhenoneisunabletoresolveitwithmentalstrength.Thebrothersresponditintheway.It''''simpossibleforthevictimstohealtheirtrau-mawhentheychoosedeathlystillnessinfrontofpain,whichbringsonpessimisticattitudestowardslifeandpassivewaytowardstrauma.Theyaresoyoungthatthetraumaticeffectofslaveryisdestructiveforthem.Tosomedegree,theysharethesamestatewiththeirpoorfather,permanentself-exilingwiththeincurabletrauma.

Survivingvictims

PaulDisoneoftheenslavedinSweetHome,whereSetheandHalleisenslaved.UnlikeSetheboundingherselfin124afterallhardships,heexpe-riencesmore,combedwithallhardshipsandarduousself-reorganization.

His"tobaccotin"causedbyformertraumaisarousedbyBeloved,wholiterallymanipulateshim,makinghimphysicallyrestlessandforcinghimtosleepwithherintheshedoutsidethehouse.ThoughPaulD''''shatredforBelovedneverceases,theirstrange,dreamlikesexualencountersopenthelidofhis"tobaccotin"heart,allowinghimtoremember,feel,andloveagain.ThetraumaticawakingplaysaroleagainwhenhetemporarilyretreatsafterlearningSethemurderingherchild."Hemustworkoutofaconditionofpsychicfragmentation——hisselfhoodhasbeenseverelyimpaired,hisstatusasahumansubjectdeniedbytheslaveculture".

WhenhedecidestoreturnstoSetheandherfearful,murderouslove,hetriestoreconstructfuture.HehasthecapacitytoleadSetheoutofhernarcissis-ticisolationandintorelationshipwiththeexternalworld."Heisabletosalvageoutofthewreckagebol-steringfaithinbothselfandother.HetriestopassthisfaithontoSetheattheend."Hisfingersholdinghers,hetoldSethethatSetheherselfwasherbestthinginsteadofBeloved.Hisfaithindicatestheinitia-tivesofdealingwithtrauma.Hesuccessfullydoesit,andsodoesSetheashewishes.ThescenebetweenthemattheendcomesclosesttothestateofmutualrecognitionandattunementbyPaulD''''slastrescue.Hisstrugglewitnessesthevictoryofbeatingthetrau-mabequeathedbyslaveryBesidesPaulD,Denverisanothercharacterofhealingthetraumaandachievingmaturityaftersuffer-ing.Thougheighteenyearsold,sheactsmuchyounger,maintaininganintensefearoftheworldout-side124andaperilouslyfragilesenseofself.Feelinglonelyandexiled,herself-hooddevelopswiththegrowingofhersenseofself.

Sheisenlightenedbythelattercrisisofherpoorfamily.InthefaceofBeloved''''sescalatingmalevo-lenceandhermother''''ssubmissiveness,Denverisforcedtostepoutsidetheworldof124.Filledwithasenseofduty,purpose,andcourage,herdeparturefrom124marksthebeginningofhersocialintegrationandofhersearchforindependence,self-possessionandseparateself.Despiteallhardships,shepracticeshernirvana,whichisagreatexaltationofthepsyche.Vengefulvictimandpurgatorialone

Belovediscombinationofpre-Oedipalcomplex,achild''''searly(non-sexual)fixationonthemotherpri-ortothechild''''sentranceintotheOedipalComplexi-dentifiedbyFreudandmaternalhatred,whichseemverycontradictory.

Attheverybeginning,BelovedandDenverloveeachotherlikeaunion.WhenthetruththatBelovedistheghostofDenver''''sdeadsisterisrevealed,theydenieseachotherfortheirdesireforthesamemother.Thesenseofenvyisalsopre-Oedipalcomplex.Underthecircumstance,sister-hoodgiveswaytomother-hood.

Paradoxically,Beloved''''sdesireformotherisvengefulduetohertraumaofbeingkilledbyherownmother.ShemakeseffortstotorturesSethementallyaspossibleasshecan.TheinteractionbetweenBelovedandSetheistenseandvulnerableliketheenduranceofachord.OnceSethereciprocatesBeloved''''sviolentpassionforher,thetwobecomelockedinadestruc-tive,exclusive,parasiticrelationship.

Sometimes,Belovedbecomesextremelymalevo-lent.ThesceneinwhichshealmoststranglesSethe,anactthatmirrorsthewayhermotherpreviouslysawedthroughherthroat,suggestsherextremehatredonSethe.Herrevengeispracticedbyherviolenceandviciousness:sheseduceshermother''''slover(PaulD)andattacksSethe''''sdog,herhouse,andSetheherself.Becausemotheranddaughterhavebecomeindistin-guishablebyherwretcheddemands,inwhichSethebecomesemaciatedwhileshebecomesfat,herattackonSetheiseffectivelyaformofself-destructionatthesametimesheruinsSethefiercely.Bytheway,herresentmentwillbeeasedlittle.Hervengefuldesireissopoignantthatthatallareruinedwon''''tsatisfyher.Sheisacursedghost,whoisnotonlycursedbutalsocursesthewhole.124isherconsiderableplace,whereeverythingisarrangedforherresentment.Hertraumaseemsincurablebecauseitisfrequentlydepositedandincreasedforeverlikeinanition.

MorefortunatethanBeloved,Setheisstillcur-ablealthoughsheisalmostruinedbythehardshipsofslavery.Whatsheexperiencesisthepurgatorialsuffer-ing,themostseverepaininlife.

Inthehardshipsofslavery,unwillingtorelin-quishherchildrentothephysical,emotional,andspir-itualtraumashehasenduredasaslave,shesuccess-fullymurdersoneofherchildren,whichsheconsidersasanactofmother''''sloveandprotection.Actually,thedeedistheextremeofmother''''sdevotiontoherbaby,whichsherepeatsandemphasizesforseveraltimesinfrontofothers.Herextremeisoneoftenden-cypeoplearelikelytohavewhentheyareintheposi-tionofpossessionandlosing.Sheconsidersherbabyasonepartofherself,thebeautifulpart,whichshehasrighttodispose.Inthehardesttime,thetimeofdespair,shedesperatelydecidesthebaby''''sdestina-tionbymurderinghercruelly.Theextremecrueltylingersonhermindasatraumainherlatterlifeaftertheendoftheslavery.Afterwards,Sethe''''sbehaviorbecomespurgatorial.Sheenclosesherselfin124,whereshecanregretforhercrueltyofmurderingherbaby.Sheisunabletotellanyoneaboutherpastandsheistotallyenslavedbyit.

Sheisbrokendownandalsocuredwhenshebe-comeshysteriainstrugglewithhertrauma,whichisunintentionallytreatedwhilesheisforcedbyBelovedtorecalltheunendurablepast——storiesaboutherownfeelingsofabandonmentbyhermother,abouttheharshestindignitiesshesufferedatSweetHome,andabouthermotivationsformurderingherdaughter.Herhysteriaisconfirmedbyheractionsintheexorcismscene,wheresheattackstheliberalwhiteman,Ed-wardBodwin.FreudandBreuerproposedthathysteri-calsymptomsdisappearwhenthememoryofthedis-turbingeventthatfirstprovokedsymptomsisrecalledandtheaffectoftraumaisaroused.Curecomesthroughthereproductionoftheprimalsceneoftrau-ma,whichcreatesanopportunityforrevisionofthepsychiceventsthatcausetheprimaltrauma.

SethetryingtokillBodwinsymbolicallyconsti-tutesarestagingofhertrauma:thedeathofherdaughter.BodwinapproachesthehousetocollectDen-verforworkinthesamewaythatschoolteacherap-proachedtorecapturehisslaves.Butthistime,Sethechoosesadifferentcourseofaction.Insteadoftryingtoprotectherchildrenbykillingthem,shefliesatBodwinwithanicepick.Forthefirsttime,herprotestisdirectedoutwardtowardthesourceofoppression,representedbyBodwin(whostandsforschoolteacher),ratherthantakingtheformofself-destructionofmur-deringherownchildrenlasttime.AtthatmomentBeloveddisappears.Sheisalsoreleasedandsavedbymother''''shysteriaandherdesperateresponsetothesametrauma,whichthemotherandthedaughtershareforsolong.

OnlywhenSethelearnstoconfrontthepasthead-on,toassertherselfinitspresence,canshelib-eratesherselffromitsoppressivepowerandbegintolivefreely,peacefully,andresponsiblyinthepresent.Aftertheclimax,SetheisextremelyexhaustedwhilePaulDeventuallyreturnstothehouse.Whensheliesinbed,PaulDgivesherhope,gentlytouchingherface:"Meandyou,wegotmoreyesterdaythanany-body…Weneedsomekindoftomorrow.""''''Youyourbestthing,Sethe.Youare.''''Hisholdingfingersareholdinghers.''''Me?Me?"AlthoughSetheisunsureaboutherself,shebeginstorecognizethatsheherselfmaybethecenterofherlife,ratherthanthepassingbabyorthepastgoneby.SheisforgivennotonlybyPaulDbutalsobythecirclesofblacks,whoarealsothevictimsofslavery.HerdesireandPaulD''''sareunlockedtoenvisionthefreshfutureforthem.Inasense,theybringoneanotherbacktolife.Theircon-solingpower,whichliesinthemutualityoftheinnerexperienceandsufferingafterallthetrauma,leadsthecharacterstonirvana,thefocusfromthetraumaticpasttothepresentunderway.

Asthedemonstrationabove,peoplerespondtotraumadistinctivelyanddeservevariouseffects."Thehardshipshavedeeprepercussionsintheindividual''''sinternalworldsothatevenifoneiseventuallyfreedfromexternalbondage,theselfwillstillbetrappedinaninnerworldthatpreventsagenuineexperienceoffreedom."Ifonecansavethemselvesoutoftheinnerillusionofbondageandfacetherealitydespitethetraumaticpastand,themortaltraumawillbeerased,nirvanabeyondthetrauma.